Some believe that recent proliferations in technological advances have resulted in an overemphasis on clinical competence and a disproportionate emphasis on service and caring within the health professions. Careers, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky. Alternatively, this perceived change in the profile of pharmacy students may be a result of an amalgam of causes, including cultural and/or societal changes that produce a different type of student.9,10 Today's students may be more concerned with the technical aspects of various professions and more emotionally immature compared to previous generations of learners.9,10 Regardless of the etiology of the changing profile of students, most colleges and schools are struggling to admit the most qualified applicants. A nationwide shortage of pharmacy practitioners has led to the proliferation of new colleges and schools of pharmacy and forced many existing institutions to increase class sizes.7 This turn of events has resulted in greater numbers of candidates for admission and the need for greater scrutiny in these processes as colleges compete for the same applicant pool.7. Griffenhagen GB, Brushwood D, Parascandola J, Schondelmeyer S. Trends and events in American pharmacy, 1852-2002. Some researchers claim that emotional intelligence meets all 3 of the aforementioned criteria.16,17 Several measures of emotional intelligence have been developed and the various criteria used by different measures may converge.16 In fulfilling the second criterion, some emotional intelligence measures have been validated and appear to have associations with empathy, warmth, and emotional openness.18 Associations with outside criteria such as scholastic aptitude tests also appear to exist. Measuring emotional intelligence of medical school applicants. <> Mayer JD, Cobb CD. Some medical schools have experimented with various aspects of measuring and assessing emotional intelligence. Mean EQi scores in the emotional intelligence curriculum group improved from 101.16 to 111.06 (p < 0.001) and in the non-emotional intelligence curriculum group from 101.92 to 103.7 (p < 0.01). Using the structured interview for a more reliable assessment of pharmacy student applicants. *,1-r~% f2`9K$R/RChQ The mean population norms for the PSS-10 scale is 13.0. will also be available for a limited time. Pau AKH, Croucher R. Emotional intelligence and perceived stress in dental undergraduates. This study was limited by its cross-sectional design, which involved a convenience sample of a single academic institution. Before No single test is considered to be a gold standard for assessment. An evaluation of traditional and novel predictors of didactic and professional practice success of pharmacy students. Wagner PJ, Moseley GC, Grant MM, Gore JR, Owens C. Physicians' emotional intelligence and patient satisfaction. While the corporate world seems to have embraced the concept of emotional intelligence as a predictor of worker success, this is less true within the health professions where research is lacking and a greater level of scrutiny can be expected. hXn6[HXp864nMt]Yr$9, m_@x33T`0&3Lb9gmt=|1n:>|=? Using Pearson correlation coefficients, applicant scores on traditional admissions criteria (eg, GPA, interview scores, Aptitude College Test [ACT] scores) were compared with emotional intelligence instrument scores. endstream endobj startxref Researchers found that overall emotional intelligence contributed to individual cognitive-based performance over and above the level attributable to general intelligence, and this relationship was positive (p < 0.01). The mean age of the cohort was 20.8 years and 88.5% of respondents were Caucasian. Nia%Y>F :>|X%}8duL _Afue!F=>v$,.I6 B`L_XZ\}?>d"rFMcfq(hk!E^CIjy|?-mCf!L_S1IXL3RS4&"I(8FL1BdS:h)A#\s>w!|kdBk=L! A government site. In 1 of the 5 sections (intervention group, n = 31), formal instruction regarding emotional intelligence was incorporated into the curriculum. No background information regarding the study participants was reported. Factor analysis of social and abstract intelligence. The capacity to develop this kind of a relationship (ie, patient-pharmacist) may be facilitated by one's emotional intelligence.25,28-29 If this theory holds true and with various managed care and other environmental constraints being placed upon practitioners from all health fields, it may become critical for students in the health professions to have emotional intelligence to provide high-quality patient care. x=?ippZ]w"e}hb031 K}Qg\YWVYU7})B4^XXmV.t( O>|]\jgo[E mB*gZjh6(z!kw6phEk)a,CWp:(3mZW* kqP_k[(? Pre-pharmacy indicators of success in pharmacy school: grade point averages, pharmacy college admission test, communication abilities, and critical thinking skills. This study was limited by the constructs used to define patient satisfaction (eg, 100% satisfaction) and the study's small sample size, which could only detect large effects. Self-report reliability may be increased by combining self-responses with peer assessments.22 However, this introduces several research issues as well as the need for increased resources. Lam LT, Kirby SL. PMC legacy view Pau AKH, Croucher R, Sohanpal R, Muirhead V, Seymour K. Emotional intelligence and stress coping in dental undergraduates a qualitative study. Self-report scales must be understandable to the test subject and are prone to response biases such as social desirability effects which may result in exaggerated responses. The concept of EI has roots in discussions that began as early as the late 1930s, when researchers began describing a non-intellective intelligence sometimes described as social intelligence.14 EI itself was first defined in the early 1990s by Salvoy and Meyers as a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions.15 Salvoy and Meyers expanded their definition to include the verbal and non-verbal appraisal and expression of emotion, the regulation of emotion in the self and others, and the utilization of emotional content in problem-solving. Conversely, general intelligence has been defined as a person's overall capacity for adaptation through effective cognition and information processing.16 In simpler terms, emotional intelligence might be defined as the set of skills people use to read, understand, and react effectively to emotional signals sent by others and oneself.15 These are skills such as empathy, problem-solving, optimism, and self-awareness which allow people to reflect, react to, and understand various environmental situations. Hepler CD, Strand LM, Tromp D, Sakolchai S. Critically examining pharmaceutical care. In assessing any form of intelligence, descriptive models must meet 3 standards.16 First, an intelligence should be capable of reflecting mental performance rather than preferred ways of behaving, a person's self-esteem, or non-intellectual attainments. Emotional intelligence: a vital prerequisite for recruitment in nursing. Students with high emotional intelligence were more likely to adopt reflection and appraisal, social and intrapersonal, and organization and time-management skills. Received 2005 Aug 4; Accepted 2005 Oct 6. emotional intelligence, general intelligence, academic success, performance. Allen DD, Bond CA. This paper will review the foundations and proposed definitions of the concept of emotional intelligence as well as discuss health professions and non-health profession trials and issues in this area. All assessment instruments may be hindered by the loosely defined nature of emotional intelligence which makes concrete criteria for measurements difficult to define. %%EOF This was not a surprising finding given that a physician's mood will often be transmitted to patients. Forty-eight percent of respondents were male and the mean age of the total sample was 21.3 years. The goals of this process were to allow students to gain a self-awareness of their emotional intelligence strengths and weaknesses and to improve their patient-physician interactions and to provide a more formalized approach to improving patient-physician interactions. No formal statistical or outcome data were collected by the investigator in this pilot study. A specific example from pharmacy practice might involve recognition that adherence to treatment regimens can be improved not only with attention to a patient's technical needs but also to emotional requirements in fulfilling their therapeutic covenant. Recognizing the potential for significant contributions of emotional intelligence to patient outcomes, some suggest that it is important to expect, recognize, develop, and assess emotional intelligence within health professions education. Transitions part 1: beyond pharmaceutical care. Strong validity data may be lacking in part due to the varied definitions of the concept of emotional intelligence itself.20-22 Without a stringent definition of emotional intelligence, each instrument may be measuring slightly different constructs. Elam et al sought to gather information related to emotional intelligence from entering medical students at the University of Kentucky (UK) College of Medicine.31 Two existing scales, the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) and the Davis' Interpersonal Reactivity Index (DIRI), were used to measure emotional intelligence. The majority of studies have involved medical and dental students. Several potential implications regarding emotional intelligence exist for all health professions including pharmacy. Traditional markers of ability and success, such as grade point average (GPA) and standardized test scores, have varying degrees of predictive value.1-5 Some institutions employ additional methods to select candidates for admission including but not limited to writing samples, personality inventories, on-site individual interviews, and group interviews.3,6 Colleges and schools of pharmacy are increasingly scrutinizing their student admissions processes for several reasons. The applicant pool was composed of 83 women and 64 men. Recommendations for future research and research potential are discussed. Internal consistency (as determined by Cronbach's alpha assessment) for the emotional intelligence scale and PSS-10 were 0.9 and 0.86, respectively. hbbd``b`V@3`?$@BCH0- BHH$&?AH3+- S4,#eE7|0 F about navigating our updated article layout. Throndike RL. Patients were recruited at the conclusion of an office visit to complete an 11-item patient satisfaction survey. Additionally, the dynamic nature of the pharmacy profession, which in recent years has undergone both educational and professional paradigm shifts, may be best served by students and practitioners who can manage emotions, adapt to change, and manipulate stressful environments and situations. Since research in this area as it applies to education is limited, all identified studies were included in this review and the limitations identified. Mean perceived stress scores were higher in students over 21 years of age (p < 0.001), female students (p < 0.05), and those in higher years of school (p < 0.001). Traditional admissions markers may predict successful academic performance but may not capture many intangible characteristics, behavioral variations, and traits that may be more critical to successful pharmacy practice and life in general.11 These intangible characteristics, such as empathy, social maturity, and self-awareness may be essential components required for connecting with and caring for patients. Ability-based assessments generally involve hands-on problem sets and require greater resource commitments in terms of cost and time; however, they are considered by most to be more accurate than self-report.22 All of these instruments have been criticized for deficiencies in validity. 89 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[]/Index[68 38]/Info 67 0 R/Length 98/Prev 215950/Root 69 0 R/Size 106/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream Colleges and schools may be admitting students who are less prepared or who do not fully understand the profession's role and responsibilities in health care. No studies have examined the concept of emotional intelligence within the framework of pharmacy or pharmacy education. Baseline demographic data for study participants were not reported by the authors. &r *o$Xb7n^hnM2 9*YnT- f8.MLWF)~ aGSu0|5I;,c}LXrg^7T=E? Four sets of coping strategies adopted at varying degrees of emotional intelligence were identified. Potential researchers in this area should have a critical understanding of the underpinnings of the emotional intelligence debate. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Job competencies and the curriculum: An inquiry into emotional intelligence in graduate professional education. An exploration of the impact of emotional and general intelligence on individual performance. Limitations to this research include the small sample size (particularly of the emotional intelligence curriculum group) and inherent limits of the scales and instruments used in this trial. Measuring emotional intelligence of medical school matriculants. In a follow-up report, Pau et al examined how dental undergraduates with differing levels of emotional intelligence dealt with stress.35 Researchers selected a population of undergraduate dental students from a 5-year program and used the emotional intelligence scale by Schuette et al to determine emotional intelligence scores.19 Subjects were then stratified into high and low emotional intelligence score groups using median scores as breakpoints. stream Using the Games-Howell posthoc test, researchers found statistically significant increases in EQi scores among the students who completed the emotional intelligence curriculum compared with scores of students in the group that was not given the emotional intelligence curriculum, although scores in both groups improved. Additionally, the generalizability of the study is limited by the degree of reliability of the MEIS and the homogeneity of the study sample. A Medline search was conducted to identify literature in this area as it pertains to the health sciences. Meeting these criteria would establish emotional intelligence as a set of abilities rather than a preferred way of behaving or a personality trait. These findings led researchers to conclude that emotional intelligence could be taught or learned and is not a fixed parameter. Faculty members shared and reflected upon their scores and students were encouraged to do the same. The results of this secondary analysis have not yet been published. Summary of Emotional Intelligence Research Trials. Latif DA. Finally, a reported difference in emotional intelligence scores between adolescents and adults provides support for meeting the final criterion for a new form of intelligence.18,19, Common criticisms of emotional intelligence and emotional intelligence measures are the multitude of qualities encompassed by the concept and its loosely defined nature.20-22 Some authors have described overlaps between emotional intelligence models and personality constructs. Health professions have been described as an amalgam of clinical competence and a service-orientation towards caring.25 Aptitudes for a service and caring orientation may be reflected by one's emotional intelligence. National Library of Medicine Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Kidd RS, Latif DA. This study was limited in that complete admissions data were not available for all applicants, thus the sample size was not completely inclusive. Correlational analysis demonstrated that emotional intelligence scale scores were inversely related to PSS-10 scores. W6>! Using a cross-sectional survey design, Pau et al investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and perceived stress among a cohort of dental undergraduates.34 Emotional intelligence was assessed using a validated instrument developed by Schuette et al, while perceived stress was measured using the Perceived Stress Scales (PSS-10).35 T tests were used to compare mean scores. Each subject then underwent focused, in-depth, face-to-face interviews with blinded interviewers for the purposes of identifying predictors and coping mechanisms related to stress for each student. Various studies examining emotional intelligence in other health professions have been conducted. The instrument was based on extensive reviews of the emotional intelligence literature and repeated focus groups involving the admissions committees of the medical schools involved in the project. 68 0 obj <> endobj Including the assessment of nontraditional factors in pharmacy school admissions. The new PMC design is here! Carrothers et al developed and piloted a trial of an emotional intelligence assessment instrument intended for applicants at 3 consortium medical schools.32 Researchers developed a 34-item semantic differential instrument that was intended to measure emotional intelligence constructs. Physicians were separated into 2 groups: those with 100% patient-reported relationship satisfaction (n = 11) and those with less than 100% satisfaction (n = 19). Cadman C, Brewer J. With the introduction of several new colleges and schools of pharmacy as well as increasing class sizes, greater competition for the pool of qualified or best applicants can be expected. Conte JM. All students completed a preintervention and postintervention Bar-On E-Qi test, but only students in the intervention section were provided with the results and an analysis. In order for pharmacists and pharmacy students to successfully provide care of any type, they must cultivate patient interactions that engender trust, empathy, and self-awareness. Many psychologists and intelligence experts fail to find differences between emotional intelligence and personality constructs and often identify the loosely defined nature of emotional intelligence as a major impediment to acceptance of the concept.21-23 Others support the notion that existing data and research in this area are sufficiently robust to justify acceptance of emotional intelligence or at a minimum support of ongoing research in this area.15-18 Both groups recognize the need to embrace a single definition and the need for better assessment instruments and measures. This is especially evident in pharmacy. All health care professions are rooted in a need to establish therapeutic relationships with patients. Holland RW, Nimmo CM. Roberts RD, Zeidner M, Matthews G. Does emotional intelligence meet traditional standards for an intelligence? Chisholm MA, Cobb HH, Kotzan JA. From each emotional intelligence group in each academic year, 1 male and 1 female student were randomly selected to comprise a cohort of 10 subjects that represented all 5 years of the dental program. Students with low emotional intelligence were more likely to engage in health damaging behaviors (eg, procrastinating, social withdrawal, use of tobacco products). heDseF[KI"PtNFKMJKg(z9(}3=\@b{|;q i!78@h _p@N`homG6lJi&Abd%4k3R3/~mEX gA[Z:zx8yA4.w'_'=ym|ra_Y(V=O C`{?PKf-j|?O:j\kn2pKI-LAc# ;7k2k1Jwl?/SX/vmOwk^oC@Qr@Y9OH]T@p0Q/L)pBB&Y b6P_wDI'B ZJHK%:_Od[F *6q'}H"sasxY3o9NKMpzp3"W0ppyP%"mD-'=_er{$ee*"lV~]5;Cw_P p_GyD3iDj&F[4o(m'>OzYv:uf\+#e@@%~ 3JAl In order to demonstrate validity, the Shipley Scale IQ was shown to significantly and positively correlate with participant SAT scores. Students registering for 1 of the 5 sections of the course were blinded to the study goals. 8600 Rockville Pike +Tv~S 9N3d7G6EeY_;q",q\ZGL=tt0vK1Br"Mu9.e|m 02:w%C60>1'fMx\N6zu/*'59zqMSC_uTh:|l7\gf64@=B^ m_vK>Ip2 \oHRXQ a\(xgv&}?? Thomas MC, Draugalis JR. Utility of pharmacy college admissions test (PCAT): implications for admissions committees. Researchers concluded that dental students with greater degrees of emotional intelligence may be more adept at coping and dealing with academic and non-academic stressful situations, and that reducing perceived stress may improve academic performance as well as patient satisfaction. Two scores were derived from the satisfaction survey: the total satisfaction sum and the relationship satisfaction score. The total satisfaction score reflected patients' impressions of their overall health care, while the relationship score was more specific for services provided by their individual physician. The authors emphasize that modalities for improving emotional intelligence of dental students might also augment stress coping mechanisms. Furthermore, scores for each dimension of the instrument were higher among women with less variance. Therefore, careful analysis is required to determine what is and what is not emotional intelligence. However, prior to advocating research in this area, several issues must be addressed, including establishing a clear definition of emotional intelligence and assessing the validity and reliability of existing measurement instruments. The researchers intend to use the garnered information to prospectively monitor the development of communication and interpersonal skills among the cohort. Romanelli F, Ryan M. A survey and review of attitudes and beliefs of generation X pharmacy students. Mean emotional intelligence scores of the women were significantly higher than those of the men (p < 0.05). Significant factors for predicting academic success of first-year pharmacy students. Additionally, variability in emotional intelligence scores at this institution was lower in comparison to the other institutions. Various investigators have engaged in research designed to examine and apply emotional intelligence constructs within academic, medical, and other learning settings (Table (Table1).1). As part of the Essentials of Clinical Medicine Course at the Medical College of Georgia, Wagner et al developed a module intended to increase medical students' understanding of emotional and interactional skills and to improve emotional intelligence.30 Students and faculty members who enrolled in the course completed the Bar-On E-Qi and subsequently participated in a lecture series on emotional intelligence. Is emotional intelligence an advantage? Lastly, intelligence should vary with experience and age. Accessibility %PDF-1.5 A review and critique of emotional intelligence measures. This criticism extends to the instruments used to measure and assess emotional intelligence.22 Various instruments exist and are either self-report (ie, Bar-On EQ-I), ability-based (Multi-Factor Emotional Intelligence Scale [MEIS]), or a combination of these types. Each interview was then systematically transcribed and qualitatively analyzed. The Shipley Institute of Living IQ Scale was used to determine general intelligence. Additionally, performance-based tests are hindered by the objectivity in selecting what are considered correct responses to the problem sets posed to the test subjects. Many corporations have examined and to some extent used emotional intelligence as a measure of these intangible characteristics, which some speculate are better predictors of educational and occupational performance.12,13 Many proponents claim that emotional intelligence may be a distinguishing characteristic of great leaders.12 Recognizing that aspects of emotional intelligence are central to the provision of care, several health professions have experimented with strategies aimed at measuring and/or modifying emotional intelligence. No studies involving emotional intelligence have been reported among cohorts of pharmacy students or pharmacists. Additional health science and non-health science research papers were then identified using references listed by primary authors of these studies. The instrument was pilot tested, and complete data for analysis were available for 147 applicants. Some historical and scientific issues related to research on emotional intelligence. Latiff DA. endobj Significance of didactic merit, test scores, interviews, and the admissions process: a case study. A more natural relationship which predicts success might exist within the health professions, where if accepted as a construct, emotional intelligence may prove to be critical for the development of productive therapeutic pharmacist-patient relationships. Identifying and teaching Generation X pharmacy students. Freshwater D, Stickley T. The heart of the art: emotional intelligence in nurse education. Beginning level of knowledge was controlled for through the examination of GPAs for each subject. Additionally, research examining emotional intelligence should attempt to exclude as many confounders as possible. Paralleling these changes in the dynamics of the profession has been a growing consensus among faculty members that current pharmacy students often lack empathy and a commitment to pharmacy's professional standards.8-10 This phenomenon may be occurring for several reasons. Researchers found that overall emotional intelligence scores were higher among women than men (189.2 vs.176.5). Lastly, the authors compared emotional intelligence scores by applicant gender. $} 2 0 obj Information from the pilot test of the emotional intelligence instrument was not used for making any decisions with regard to admission. The concept has been criticized by some for its loose definition and parallels to personality traits. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal nWfYQh?1:kU +kurkn>z~#P$i k*5~:9!F]#BQ@Pv6!&#'5]n+@z9#a|ne {j"^oWzhv{]/C6WB.7xM90Whim/+>4lw+A(`60z#s";}RI/U6zg e+b. IZ*Eq-fD. In a sub-analysis of emotional intelligence scores categorized by medical school, those applicants who had matriculated from the institution considered to have the strongest requirements in terms of the arts and humanities had the highest overall emotional intelligence scores (mean overall emotional intelligence score of 186.5 versus 177.3 and 182.7). 105 0 obj <>stream endobj Lack of research in this area by pharmacy and other health professions may be for one of several reasons. Locke EA. endobj Additionally, students' emotional intelligence scores at admission will be compared to results from standardized patients' assessments of medical interviewing and interaction. Hammer DP, Berger BA, Beardsley RS, Easton MR. Student professionalism. This study was limited by its small sample size and the qualitative nature of the data and analysis. Some new data and conclusions. 0 The authors concluded that based on this pilot study, the emotional intelligence instrument that was developed by the consortium demonstrated the ability to measure attributes that indicate desirable personal and interpersonal skills in medical school applicants. Despite this limitation, the researchers concluded that a health care professional's satisfaction with his/her own life and his/her personal happiness is a component in maximizing a patient's satisfaction with health care services. Both instruments were administered to the 2000 entering class of the UK College of Medicine (n = 101), with a participation rate of 90%. Some information can be garnered from educational research conducted by colleagues in medical and dental fields. When correlating relationship satisfaction scores and Bar-On EQi scores, researchers found that only one EQi subscale (that of the physician's level of happiness) had a weak correlation with patients' higher satisfaction.